Fadi Zatari

The paramilitary forces known as the “Gendarmerie” emerged as a novel mechanism for societal control following the French Revolution. In Egypt, Gamal Abdel Nasser instituted the Central Security Forces (CSF) in 1969, drawing inspiration from the French Gendarmerie model, in response to mass protests. However, he developed it to suit the security needs in Egypt, where its operation expanded to include both urban and rural areas, not just rural areas as in France and Türkiye. After President Nasser’s unexpected death in 1970, his deputy, Anwar Sadat, assumed power. During his tenure, the CSF underwent two significant developments. After the assassination of former President Sadat in 1981, President Mubarak restructured the CSF and deployed it across Egypt to ensure the regime’s ability to confront any local threats that might endanger it. Nevertheless, the CSF failed to quell the protests of January 2011 and collapsed, which contributed to Mubarak stepping down from his position. This article investigates the role of the CSF in sustaining Egypt’s authoritarian regimes from 1969 until the 2011 uprising. It delves into the key internal and external factors behind the CSF’s formation and evolution while also analyzing the crucial circumstances that affected the forces’ performance during the 2011 revolution.

The Liberal International Theory Tradition in Europe promotes liberalism and revives its classical IR tradition, predominantly by presenting liberalism in constructive ways but only with regard to the historical context of Europe in the last 100 years. Thus, this monograph can be criticized for not being objective as it ignores significant critiques of the classical liberal tradition; for instance, the critique that the tradition is incompetent in dealing with religious and cultural differences domestically and internationally.

The Muqaddima (Prolegomena) is the main work that made Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) eminent not only in historiography, civilization studies, anthropology, and sociology, but also in philosophy, economy, demography, and other fields of study.

A profound understanding of American foreign policy depends upon a thorough and a rigorous theoretical understanding of the ideology that stimulates and determines it. Liberalism claims that spreading liberal democracy across the world can be accomplished through an open international economy and international institutions that promote peace in the international system. Throughout his mainly theoretical contribution, John Mearsheimer argues that on the contrary, liberal democracy harms the U.S. and the international system.